Normandy en Brief
Normandy, much like the rest of the continent, was at first inhabited by prehistoric nomad hunters. These unknown races were in Gaul at the same time with the great Mammoth. Remains of prehistoric man have frequently been found in caves, his arms, his implements of bone or stone, and even his crude drawings are mingled with remains of animals now extinct. At the dawn of history Gaul appears divided among three to four hundred tribes belonging to the great families of the Celts and the Iberians. The Celts are called the fathers of Gaul because of their vast numbers and holdings. The word Gaul, from Gallia, Gallus, is the Latin adaptation of an old Celtic name, from which also comes Galatians. The tradition handed down by Greek and Latin writers attributes to Gauls tall stature, fair complexion and very light hair.
The Celts had found a people already established in Gaul before their arrival, The Iberians, who under the name of Aquitanians, were gradually pushed back to the south. These people originated in what are now Spain and Portugal. They were one of the oldest European peoples who probably came from Africa during prehistoric times. They had swarthy skins, brown hair and eyes, and were not very tall. The Basques, who now live in Northern Spain, are thought to be direct descendants of the Iberians. Their language still contains some Iberian words. Other descendants of this race are found as far north as Scotland and Ireland. There was also a prehistoric race much like the Iberians who were called the Ligurians. These people came from along the Gulf of Genoa and the Mediterranean Sea.
The Belgae, whom some regard as a separate and distinct race, occupied Northern Gaul as early as 600 B.C. The country is now divided in the north and south by language difference. The Flemings in the north speak Dutch, while the Walloons in the south speak French. The Flemings are descendants of the Franks, Germanic tribes who invaded what is now Belgium. The Walloons trace their ancestry to the Celtic tribes who lived in the area at the time of the Frankish invasion.
The Celts had marched westward sometime at the beginning of the second millennium B.C. from the plains of Central Asia, where they had been associated with the ancestors of the Greeks, the Italians, the Slavs, and the Germans. These Celts are believed to be a branch of the Indo-European family from which most of present day European, Middle Eastern and Indian races are descended. The ancestors of these Celts more than likely originated in the plains of western Russia and settled in the Alpine region of Austria and Switzerland. There, between 1300 B. C. and 600 B.C., they built a coherent society. At no time in their history were the Celts a pure blooded race. On the contrary, they were a mixture of many peoples including adventurers, traders, farmers and fighters connected through intermarriage, similarity of religion, custom and language. The Celts were a nationality rather than a race.
The Celts had found a people already established in Gaul before their arrival, The Iberians, who under the name of Aquitanians, were gradually pushed back to the south. These people originated in what are now Spain and Portugal. They were one of the oldest European peoples who probably came from Africa during prehistoric times. They had swarthy skins, brown hair and eyes, and were not very tall. The Basques, who now live in Northern Spain, are thought to be direct descendants of the Iberians. Their language still contains some Iberian words. Other descendants of this race are found as far north as Scotland and Ireland. There was also a prehistoric race much like the Iberians who were called the Ligurians. These people came from along the Gulf of Genoa and the Mediterranean Sea.
The Belgae, whom some regard as a separate and distinct race, occupied Northern Gaul as early as 600 B.C. The country is now divided in the north and south by language difference. The Flemings in the north speak Dutch, while the Walloons in the south speak French. The Flemings are descendants of the Franks, Germanic tribes who invaded what is now Belgium. The Walloons trace their ancestry to the Celtic tribes who lived in the area at the time of the Frankish invasion.
The Celts had marched westward sometime at the beginning of the second millennium B.C. from the plains of Central Asia, where they had been associated with the ancestors of the Greeks, the Italians, the Slavs, and the Germans. These Celts are believed to be a branch of the Indo-European family from which most of present day European, Middle Eastern and Indian races are descended. The ancestors of these Celts more than likely originated in the plains of western Russia and settled in the Alpine region of Austria and Switzerland. There, between 1300 B. C. and 600 B.C., they built a coherent society. At no time in their history were the Celts a pure blooded race. On the contrary, they were a mixture of many peoples including adventurers, traders, farmers and fighters connected through intermarriage, similarity of religion, custom and language. The Celts were a nationality rather than a race.
During this march west many groups halted in the Valley of the Danube and all along the Alps, while the head of the column advanced westward to the shores of the Atlantic throughout Normandy and Brittany. Ireland also became part of their domain. The Celts expanded their holdings and extended their settlements. They multiplied in number to become the dominant tribe of peoples existing in Lower Normandy, as well as the rest of Gaul. Their language shows the relationship that united the Celts or Gauls with the great family of Indo-European nations. This language is still spoken in Brittany, in Wales, in the Highlands of Scotland, and in Ireland. At one time the Celts dominated almost the whole of Europe, except for the Mediterranean area. They burnt Rome and camped at the foot of the Capitol. Four centuries before Christ, they occupied France, the British Isles, half of Spain, central and southern Germany, northern Italy, the regions of the middle and lower Danube.
Nine hundred years before the invasion of Normandy by the Romans, the Celts, with the new technology that the Iron Age brought, were considered to have the most advanced weaponry of Europe. Beginning about 500 B.C. the rest of Europe became more familiar with these roving bands of shaggy-haired, mustachioed, half-naked warriors irresistibly armed and mounted, who unleashed a wild, unnerving fury in battle. It is known from ancient writers and evidence of portraits on coinage that the Celts wore their hair long and that men grew beards and mustaches. Roman stone reliefs show Celts wearing tunics or tabard style garments made of animal skins.
The earliest found archaeological evidence associated with the Celts places them in what is now France in the late Bronze Age around 1200 B.C. They had no central government, but used a feudal system with each tribe being headed by a king/chief and was divided by class into Druids (priests), warrior nobles, and commoners/freemen and slaves. Politically there was a great degree of democracy within the society with both men and women being treated equally and all-important decisions being made at tribal gatherings in which women had an equal voice. Rulers were subject to removal at these gatherings if found unsatisfactory or incompetent and succession was not necessarily hereditary. The lack of unity between the tribes eventually led to the extinction of their way of life, making them vulnerable to their enemies. Their economy was pastoral and agricultural. They had no real urban life but trade among the tribes and outsiders did play a large part in their economy.
Nine hundred years before the invasion of Normandy by the Romans, the Celts, with the new technology that the Iron Age brought, were considered to have the most advanced weaponry of Europe. Beginning about 500 B.C. the rest of Europe became more familiar with these roving bands of shaggy-haired, mustachioed, half-naked warriors irresistibly armed and mounted, who unleashed a wild, unnerving fury in battle. It is known from ancient writers and evidence of portraits on coinage that the Celts wore their hair long and that men grew beards and mustaches. Roman stone reliefs show Celts wearing tunics or tabard style garments made of animal skins.
The earliest found archaeological evidence associated with the Celts places them in what is now France in the late Bronze Age around 1200 B.C. They had no central government, but used a feudal system with each tribe being headed by a king/chief and was divided by class into Druids (priests), warrior nobles, and commoners/freemen and slaves. Politically there was a great degree of democracy within the society with both men and women being treated equally and all-important decisions being made at tribal gatherings in which women had an equal voice. Rulers were subject to removal at these gatherings if found unsatisfactory or incompetent and succession was not necessarily hereditary. The lack of unity between the tribes eventually led to the extinction of their way of life, making them vulnerable to their enemies. Their economy was pastoral and agricultural. They had no real urban life but trade among the tribes and outsiders did play a large part in their economy.
The best source of information about Celtic society comes from Julius Caesar. The arrival of the Romans in 50 B.C. caused the unity of the tribes of Normandy against their invaders whom Julius Caesar named, "Gauls". Caesar found a society riven by factions. From the tribe down to the family, argument and dispute seems to have been the order of the day. Caesar thought the ordinary people to be "treated almost as slaves". They were impoverished and oppressed and bound themselves to the service of powerful men in order to survive. If the leader of a faction failed to protect his followers, however, he became completely discredited. There were two privileged classes, the Druids who seemed to have combined the roles of priest and magistrate, and the Knights who led the people in war.
The Druids officiated at religious ceremonies and consulted on all aspects of worship for their gods. They normally elected a chief Druid but sometimes rival factions fought for their preferred candidate. They met every year to decide legal disputes and all were held in high regard. Caesar reported that Druidism had its roots in Britain and that students would travel there for instruction. He heard that their religion forbade them from writing about it and that it was transmitted in verse. There were so many verses that Druids might have to spend twenty years learning them.
The Celts lived on small farms or in villages but could retreat when threatened to comparative safety of a hill fort. These hill forts were constructed by digging a ditch around the top of suitable hills or natural features that were easy to defend. Timber or dry stone walls were used to contain the rampart material and some of these forts had quite complex works to protect their entrances. Some hill forts are found to have remains of buildings but others have none and there is some debate about how they were used in ancient times. Domestic timber housing could be square, rectangular or circular in plan.
The Celts had a coinage more than a century before their lands became part of the Roman Empire. Hundreds of thousands of coins have been found and some of these have given us information on otherwise unknown rulers. These coins often featured pictures of horses, boars and shocks of wheat. For low value coins the Celts used an alloy of copper and tin called, "potin". Coins of this type were ultimately cast in long strips and continued circulation until the first century AD.
The Druids officiated at religious ceremonies and consulted on all aspects of worship for their gods. They normally elected a chief Druid but sometimes rival factions fought for their preferred candidate. They met every year to decide legal disputes and all were held in high regard. Caesar reported that Druidism had its roots in Britain and that students would travel there for instruction. He heard that their religion forbade them from writing about it and that it was transmitted in verse. There were so many verses that Druids might have to spend twenty years learning them.
The Celts lived on small farms or in villages but could retreat when threatened to comparative safety of a hill fort. These hill forts were constructed by digging a ditch around the top of suitable hills or natural features that were easy to defend. Timber or dry stone walls were used to contain the rampart material and some of these forts had quite complex works to protect their entrances. Some hill forts are found to have remains of buildings but others have none and there is some debate about how they were used in ancient times. Domestic timber housing could be square, rectangular or circular in plan.
The Celts had a coinage more than a century before their lands became part of the Roman Empire. Hundreds of thousands of coins have been found and some of these have given us information on otherwise unknown rulers. These coins often featured pictures of horses, boars and shocks of wheat. For low value coins the Celts used an alloy of copper and tin called, "potin". Coins of this type were ultimately cast in long strips and continued circulation until the first century AD.
The arrival of the Romans (50 BC) caused the tribes inhabiting what is now Normandy to join forces against the invading Roman Legions. Caesar occupied Armorique, preceded against the Cotentin in a northerly direction across the country that had revolted very little before this military occupation.
The defeat of the Venetians of Morbihan followed the massacre of the Celts, Liguarians and Iberians, against the upstart Roman Legions at the summit of Castre Mountain, where they had fortified themselves. In spite of their folly the valiant rebels, little disciplined, and poorly armed, broke down the defenses of the Roman camp only to be butchered on the spot. The defeat of Unelles of Cotentin struck the knell of resistance to the Roman invaders who gradually occupied the entire territory. The Cotentin was included in the second Lyonnaise. The peace period established by the Romans permitted certain privileges, but led to trouble in the Cotentin through the provoked revolts by the very combative Celtic elements that wished to recover their independence.
In time, pacification of the Celts in Cotentin led to Christianity. The action of the Bishop of Coutances, coupled with that of the Roman occupants, permitted the extension of the Roman administrative system and at the same time spiritual influence was accomplished. The unification of the population of "Gallo-Romans" welded them together and permitted them to survive the full and abrupt Roman conquest of the fourth century. The descendants of these invading Celts, the Gauls as they were called, became superimposed on or mingled with the ancient stock. They held the armed forces, the property, the political power, the religion and control of trade and communication. Their language was the common language of Normandy. Their aristocracy held great estates, which pass later to the Gallo-Romans.
Three types of Gauls corresponding to migrations, settlements and perhaps to different mixtures of groups, were clearly defined in Gaul before the Roman conquest: in the South a type which let itself be absorbed by the old Iberian or Ligurian population; in the Center, the type of Gaul, brave, responsive to eloquence, ambitious and unstable; to the north of the Seine, a fiercer and harder type and difficult to subjugate amid the forests that protect him. In the last centuries of its independence Gaul does not appear to be a savage country. Except for wars involving masses more or less numerous, its population is settled, divided into tribes, peoples and federations. The political and social systems of the Gaulish tribes expressed the dual principle of the protection of the weak by the strong and the material attachment of the weak to his protector. In the countryside of lower Normandy it was the protection exercised by landowners over the tillers of the soil, in the towns, the protection of the wealthy over the common people, or of the chiefs of clans over their followers.
The defeat of the Venetians of Morbihan followed the massacre of the Celts, Liguarians and Iberians, against the upstart Roman Legions at the summit of Castre Mountain, where they had fortified themselves. In spite of their folly the valiant rebels, little disciplined, and poorly armed, broke down the defenses of the Roman camp only to be butchered on the spot. The defeat of Unelles of Cotentin struck the knell of resistance to the Roman invaders who gradually occupied the entire territory. The Cotentin was included in the second Lyonnaise. The peace period established by the Romans permitted certain privileges, but led to trouble in the Cotentin through the provoked revolts by the very combative Celtic elements that wished to recover their independence.
In time, pacification of the Celts in Cotentin led to Christianity. The action of the Bishop of Coutances, coupled with that of the Roman occupants, permitted the extension of the Roman administrative system and at the same time spiritual influence was accomplished. The unification of the population of "Gallo-Romans" welded them together and permitted them to survive the full and abrupt Roman conquest of the fourth century. The descendants of these invading Celts, the Gauls as they were called, became superimposed on or mingled with the ancient stock. They held the armed forces, the property, the political power, the religion and control of trade and communication. Their language was the common language of Normandy. Their aristocracy held great estates, which pass later to the Gallo-Romans.
Three types of Gauls corresponding to migrations, settlements and perhaps to different mixtures of groups, were clearly defined in Gaul before the Roman conquest: in the South a type which let itself be absorbed by the old Iberian or Ligurian population; in the Center, the type of Gaul, brave, responsive to eloquence, ambitious and unstable; to the north of the Seine, a fiercer and harder type and difficult to subjugate amid the forests that protect him. In the last centuries of its independence Gaul does not appear to be a savage country. Except for wars involving masses more or less numerous, its population is settled, divided into tribes, peoples and federations. The political and social systems of the Gaulish tribes expressed the dual principle of the protection of the weak by the strong and the material attachment of the weak to his protector. In the countryside of lower Normandy it was the protection exercised by landowners over the tillers of the soil, in the towns, the protection of the wealthy over the common people, or of the chiefs of clans over their followers.